“It Probably Hurt More Than It Helped”
LGBTQ Survivors of Sexual Assault and their Experience with the College Title IX Reporting Process
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18060/25211Keywords:
sexual assault, LGBQ college students, institutional betrayal, institutional courage, Title IXAbstract
Sexual assault in the college context disproportionately impacts lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) students. Title IX law requires that college campuses have a mechanism in place to respond to reports of sexual assault, and professional social workers are often embedded throughout this process as advocates on-campus and in the community. This study explores the experience and perceptions of LGBTQ survivors with the Title IX reporting process. A sample of 409 LGBTQ survivors of college sexual assault were recruited via social media. Results of bivariate analysis indicate that LGBTQ survivors who reported had less trust in college officials and a more negative perception of the reporting climate than those who did not. Further thematic analysis suggests that students who reported faced issues related to mandatory reporting policies and accountability in sanctioning. To improve the experience of survivors with reporting sexual assault to college officials, social workers can advocate for transparency at the institutional level and less stringent mandatory reporting policies.
References
Association of Title IX Coordinators [ATIXA]. (2015). ATIXA position statement on the need for victim advocates on college campuses. https://cdn.atixa.org/website-media/o_atixa/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/18122252/2015-ATIXA-Victim-Advocates-Position-Statement-FINAL.pdf
Banyard, V., Coh, E., Edwards, K., Moynihan, M. M., Walsh, W., & Ward, S., (2012). University of New Hampshire unwanted sexual experience survey 2012. University of New Hampshire. https://cola.unh.edu/sites/default/files/media/2018/10/unwanted-sexual-experience-survey.pdf
Brubaker, S. (2019). Campus-based sexual assault victim advocacy and Title IX: Revisiting tensions between grassroots activism and the criminal justice system. Feminist Criminology, 14(3), 307-329. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085118772087
Cantor, D., Fisher, B., Chibnall, S., Harps, S., Townsend, R., Thomas, G., Lee, H. Kranz, V., Herbison, R., & Madden, K. (2020). Report on the AAU climate survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. The Association of American Universities. https://www.aau.edu/sites/default/files/AAU-Files/Key-Issues/Campus-Safety/Revised%20Aggregate%20report%20%20and%20appendices%201-7_(01-16-2020_FINAL).pdf
Carey, K., Norris, Al., Durney, S., Shepardson, R., & Carey, M. (2018). Mental health consequences of sexual assault among first-year college women. Journal of American College Health, 66(6), 480-486. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1431915
Coulter, R., Mair, C., Miller, E., Blosnich, J., Matthews, & McCauley, H. (2017). Prevalence of past-year sexual assault victimization among undergraduate students: Exploring differences by and intersections of gender identity, sexual identity, and race/ethnicity. Prevention Science, 18, 726-736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0762-8
Cruz, J. M. (2003). “Why doesn’t he just leave”: Gay male domestic violence and the reasons victims stay. Journal of Men’s Studies, 11(3), 309-324. https://doi.org/10.3149/jms.1103.309
Edwards, K., & Sylaska, K. (2013). The perpetration of intimate partner violence among LGBTQ college youth: The role of minority stress. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1721-1731. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9880-6
Eisenberg, M. E., Lust, K., Mathiason, M. A., & Porta, C. M. (2017). Sexual assault, sexual orientation, and reporting among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1-2), 62-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517726414
Ellard-Gray, A., Jeffrey, N., Choubak, M., & Crann, S. (2015). Finding the hidden participant. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2015, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406915621420
Fedina, L., Holmes, J. L., & Backes, B. (2018). Campus sexual assault: A systematic review of prevalence research from 2000 to 2015. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 19(1), 76-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016631129
Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2003). Reporting sexual victimization to the police and others: Results from a national-level study of college women. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(1), 6-38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854802239161
Flaherty, C. (2015). Endangering trust. Inside Higher Education. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/02/04/faculty-members-object-new-policies-making-all-professors-mandatory-reporters-sexual
Freyd, J. (2018). When sexual assault victims speak out, their institutions often betray them. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/when-sexual-assault-victims-speak-out-their-institutions-often-betray-them-87050
Freyd, J., & Smidt, A. (2019) So you want to address sexual harassment and assault in your organization? Training is not enough; Education is necessary. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 20(5), 489-494.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2019.1663475
Gentlewarrior, S., & Fountain, K. (2009). Culturally competent service provision to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survivors of sexual violence. National Online Resource Center on Violence Against Women. https://vawnet.org/sites/default/files/materials/files/201609/AR_LGBTSexualViolence.pdf
Graham, C., Mallinson, K., Krall, J., & Annan, S. (2019). Sexual assault, campus resource use, and psychological distress in undergraduate women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2019, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519884689
Greathouse, M., BrckaLorenz, A., Hoban, M., Huesman, R., Rankin, S., & Stoizenberg, E. B. (2018). Queer-spectrum and trans-spectrum student experiences in American higher education: The analyses of national survey findings. Rutgers Tyler Clementi Center. https://clementicenter.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/pdf/White-Paper-Final.pdf
Griner, S., Vamos, C., Thompson, E., Logan, R., Vázquez-Otero, C., & Daley, E. (2017). The intersection of gender identity and violence: Victimization experienced by transgender college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(23-24), 5704-5725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723743
Hackman, C., Bettergarcia, E., & Simmons, A., (2020). Qualitative exploration of perceptions of sexual assault and associated consequences among LGBTQ+ college students. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity [online advance publication]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000457
Hereth, J. (2021). “Where is the safe haven?” Transgender women’s experiences of victimization and help-seeking across the life course. Feminist Criminology, 16(4), 461-479. https://doi.org/10.1177/15570851211010951
Holland, K., Cortina, L., & Freyd, J. (2018). Compelled disclosure of college sexual assault. American Psychologist, 73(3), 256-268. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000186
Jordan, C., Combs, J., & Smith, G. (2014). An exploration of sexual victimization and academic performance among college women. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 15(3), 191-200. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014520637
Kammer-Kerwick, M., Wang, A., Hoefer, S., Backes, B., & Busch-Armendariz, N. (2019). Sexual violence among gender and sexual minority students: The risk and extent of victimization and related health and educational outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2019, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519883866
Koon-Magnin, S., & Schulze, C. (2016). Providing and receiving sexual assault disclosures: Findings from a sexually diverse sample of young adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(2), 416-441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516641280
Krebs, C. P., Linquist, C., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (NIJ Grant No. 2004-WG-BX-0010). National Institute of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf
Krebs, C., Lindquist, C., Berzofsky, M., Shook-Sa, B., & Peterson, K. (2016). Campus climate survey validation study final technical report. Bureau of Justice Statistics Research and Development Series. https://rvap.uiowa.edu/assets/Uploads/2898aa5950/Campus-Climate-Survey-2016.pdf
Langenderfer-Magruder, L., Eugene Walls, N., Kattari, S., Whitfield, D., & Ramos. (2016). Sexual victimization and subsequent police reporting by gender identity among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adults. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 320-331. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00082
Long, S. M., Ullman, S. E., Long, L. M., Mason, G. E., & Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Women’s experiences of male-perpetrated sexual assault by sexual orientation. Violence and Victims, 22, 684-701. https://doi.org/10.1891/088667007782793138
Mancini, C., Pickett, J., Call, C., & Roche, S. (2016). Mandatory reporting (MR) in higher education: College students’ perceptions of laws designed to reduce campus sexual assault. Criminal Justice Review, 41(2), 219-235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016816634787
Mancini, C., Pickett, J., Call, Corey, M., Robyn D., Brubaker, S., & Brownstein, H. (2019). Sexual assault in the ivory tower: Public Opinion on university accountability and mandatory reporting. Sexual Abuse, 31(3), 344-365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217706707
Mendez, J. M. (1996). Serving gays and lesbians of color who are surviving domestic violence. In C. M Renzetti & C. H. Miley (Eds.), Violence in gay and lesbian domestic partnerships (pp. 52-59). Harrington Park Press.
Mennicke, A., Geiger, E., & Brewster, M. (2019). Interpersonal violence prevention considerations for sexual minority college students: Lower campus connection, worse perceptions of institutional support, and more accurate understanding of sexual consent. Journal of Family Violence, 35, 589-601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00089-5
Merrill, G. S., & Wolfe, V. (2000). Battered gay men: An exploration of abuse, help-seeking, and why they stay. Journal of Homosexuality, 39, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v39n02_01
Moody-Adams, M. (2015). The chilling effect of mandatory reporting of sexual assault. Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/conversation/2015/03/11/the-chilling-effect-of-mandatory-reporting-of-sexual-assault/
Murchison, G., Boyd, R., & Pachankis, M. (2017). Minority stress and the risk of unwanted sexual experiences in LGBTQ undergraduates. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 77(3), 221-238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0710-2
Mushonga, D., Fedina, L, & Bessaha, M. (2021). College student perceptions of institutional responses to sexual assault reporting and general help-seeking intentions. Journal of American College Health, 69(6), 585-591. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2019.1705827
Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people's perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27(4), 457-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116
Ollen, E. W., Ameral, V. E., Reed, K. P., & Hines, D. A., (2016). Sexual minority college students’ perceptions on dating violence and sexual assault. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(1), 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000180
Padgett, D. (2016). Qualitative methods in social work research. Sage.
Rankin, S. (1998). Campus climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered students, faculty, and staff: Assessment and strategies for change. In R. Sanlo (Ed.), Working with lesbian, gay, and bisexual college students: A guide for administrators and faculty (pp. 277-284). Greenwood.
Rankin, S. (2003). Campus climate for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people: A national perspective. Policy Institute of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. https://www.whoi.edu/cms/files/CampusClimate_23425.pdf
Rankin, S. (2005). Campus climate for sexual minorities. New Directions for Student Services, 111(4), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.170
Rankin, S., Blumenfeld, W. J., Weber, G. N., & Frazer, S. (2010). State of higher education for LGBT people. Campus Pride. https://www.campuspride.org/wpcontent/uploads/campuspride2010lgbtreportssummary.pdf
Richardson, H., Armstrong, J., Hines, D., & Reed, K. (2015). Sexual violence and help seeking among LGBQ and heterosexual college students. Partner Abuse, 6(1), 29 - 46. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.6.1.29
Sabina, C., & Ho, L. Y. (2014). Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence: Disclosure, service utilization, and service provisions. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 201-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014521322
Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). Sage.
Seabrook, R., McMahon, S., Duquaine, B., Johnson, L., & Desilva, A. (2018). Sexual assault victimization and perceptions of university climate among bisexual women. Journal of Bisexuality, 18(4), 425-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2018.1485070
Schulze, C., & Perkins, W. (2017). Awareness of sexual violence services among LGBQ-identified college students. Journal of School Violence, 16(2), 148-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1284481
Smidt, A., Rosenthal, M., Smith, C., & Freyd, J. (2019). Out and in harm's way: Sexual minority students' psychological and physical health after institutional betrayal and sexual assault. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 2019, 41-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2019.1581867
Smith, C., & Freyd, J. (2013). Dangerous safe havens: Institutional betrayal exacerbates sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21778
Smith, C., & Freyd, J. (2014). Institutional betrayal. American Psychologist, 69(6), 575-587. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037564
Smith, C. P., Cunningham, S. A., & Freyd, J. J. (2016). Sexual violence, institutional betrayal, and psychological outcomes for LGB college students. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000094
Stader, D. L., & Williams-Cunningham, J. L. (2017). Campus sexual assault, institutional betrayal, and Title IX. The Clearing House, 90(5-6), 198-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2017.1361287
Sterzing, P., Gartner, R., Mcgeough, B., Leffler, A., & Blachman-Demner, D. (2018). Conducting anonymous, incentivized, online surveys with sexual and gender minority adolescents: Lessons learned from a national polyvictimization study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(5), 740-761. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517744845
Sulkowski, M. L. (2011). An investigation of students’ willingness to report threats of violence in campus communities. Psychology of Violence, 1(1), 53-65. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021592
Todahl, J. L., Linville, D., Bustin, A., Wheeler, J., & Gau, J. (2009). Sexual assault support services and community systems: Understanding the critical issues and needs in the LGBTQ community. Violence against Women, 15(8), 952-976. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209335494
United States Department of Education [US DOE]. (1997). Sexual harassment guidance: Harassment of students by school employees, other students, or third parties. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/sexhar01.html
US DOE. (2020). Nondiscrimination on the basis of sex in education programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance. 34 CFR 106 https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/05/19/2020-10512/nondiscrimination-on-the-basis-of-sex-in-education-programs-or-activities-receiving-federal
United States Office of Civil Rights. (2011). Dear colleague letter. United States Department of Education. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201104.html?exp=1
Weiss, K., & Lasky, N. (2017). Mandatory reporting of sexual misconduct at college: A critical perspective. Journal of School Violence, 16(3), 259-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1318575
White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. (2014). Climate surveys: Useful tools to help colleges and universities in their efforts to reduce and prevent sexual assault. United States White House. https://www.justice.gov/ovw/page/file/910426/download
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Sarah Nightingale
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
